Solar constant
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). When solar irradiance is measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere,[1] the measurements can be adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one AU and deduce the solar constant.[2]
Solar output is nearly, but not quite, constant. Variations in total solar irradiance were too small to detect with technology available before the satellite era. Total solar output is now measured to vary (over the last three 11-year sunspot cycles) by approximately 0.1%;[3] see solar variation for details.
The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light. It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1.361 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m²) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1% greater (roughly 1.362 kW/m²) at solar maximum.[4] The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m² in early January to 1.321 kW/m² in early July) due to the Earth's varying distance from the Sun, and typically by much less than 0.1% from day to day. Thus, for the whole Earth (which has a cross section of 127,400,000 km²), the power is 1.740×1017 W, plus or minus 3.5%. The solar constant does not remain constant over long periods of time (see Solar variation), but over a year varies much less than the variation of direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere arising from the ellipticity of the Earth's orbit. The approximate average value cited,[4] 1.361 kW/m², is equivalent to 1.952 calories per minute per square centimeter, or 1.952 langleys (Ly)—or, in SI units— about 81.672 kJ/m² per minute.
The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section (π·RE²), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface area (4·π·RE²). Hence the average incoming solar radiation, taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 340 W/m²). At any given moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's latitude, and the time of day.
The solar constant includes all wavelengths of solar electromagnetic radiation, not just the visible light (see Electromagnetic spectrum). It is linked to the apparent magnitude of the Sun, −26.8, in that the solar constant and the magnitude of the Sun are two methods of describing the apparent brightness of the Sun, though the magnitude is based on the Sun's visual output only.
In 1838, Claude Pouillet made the first estimate of the solar constant. Using a very simple pyrheliometer he developed, he obtained a value of 1228 W/m²,[5] very close to the current estimate. In 1884, Samuel Pierpont Langley attempted to estimate the solar constant from Mount Whitney in California. By taking readings at different times of day, he attempted to remove effects due to atmospheric absorption. However, the value he obtained, 2.903 kW/m², was still too great. Between 1902 and 1957, measurements by Charles Greeley Abbot and others at various high-altitude sites found values between 1.322 and 1.465 kW/m². Abbott proved that one of Langley's corrections was erroneously applied. His results varied between 1.89 and 2.22 calories (1.318 to 1.548 kW/m²), a variation that appeared to be due to the Sun and not the Earth's atmosphere.[6]
The angular diameter of the Earth as seen from the Sun is approximately 1/11,700 radians (about 18 arc-seconds), meaning the solid angle of the Earth as seen from the Sun is approximately 1/175,000,000 of a steradian. Thus the Sun emits about 2.2 billion times the amount of radiation that is caught by Earth, in other words about 3.86×1026 watts.[7]
[edit] Past variations in solar irradiance
Space-based observations of solar irradiance started in 1978. These measurements show that the solar constant is not constant. It varies with the 11-year sunspot solar cycle. When going further back in time, one has to rely on irradiance reconstructions, using sunspots for the past 400 years or cosmogenic radionuclides for going back 10,000 years. Such reconstructions have been done.[8][9][10][11] These studies show that solar irradiance does vary with distinct periodicities such as: 11 years (Schwabe), 88 years (Gleisberg cycle), 208 years (DeVries cycle) and l,000 years (Eddy cycle).
[edit] References
- ^ Satellite observations of total solar irradiance
- ^ http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/SOLAR/ftpsolarirradiance.html
- ^ Willson, Richard C.; H.S. Hudson (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle". Nature 351 (6321): 42–4. Bibcode 1991Natur.351...42W. DOI:10.1038/351042a0. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v351/n6321/abs/351042a0.html.
- ^ a b Kopp, G.; Lean, J. L. (2011). "A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters 38. DOI:10.1029/2010GL045777. http://www.atmosp.physics.utoronto.ca/~jclub/journalclub_files/kopp_lean_2011.pdf.
- ^ The measurement of the solar constant by Claude Pouillet, by J-L Dufresne, La Météorologie, No. 60, pp. 36-43, Feb. 2008.
- ^
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sun". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - ^ The Sun at nine planets.org
- ^ Wang et al.(2005), The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 625, Issue 1, Pages 522-538, http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/429689
- ^ Steinhilber et al.(2009), Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 36, L19704, http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/200811446
- ^ Vieira et al.(2011), Astronomy&Astrophysics, Volume 531, A6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201015843
- ^ Steinhilber et al.(2012), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Early Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118965109
