Dietary Reference Intake
It has been suggested that Reference Daily Intake be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2009. |
The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. The DRI system is used by both the United States and Canada and is intended for the general public and health professionals. Applications include:
- Composition of diets for schools, prisons, hospitals or nursing homes
- Industries developing new food stuffs
- Healthcare policy makers and public health officials
The DRI was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing guidelines known as Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). The DRI values are not currently used in nutrition labeling, where the older Reference Daily Intakes are still used.
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[edit] History
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) was developed during World War II by Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel Stiebeling and Helen S. Mitchell, all part of a committee established by the United States National Academy of Sciences in order to investigate issues of nutrition that might "affect national defense" (Nestle, 35).[1] The committee was renamed the Food and Nutrition Board in 1941, after which they began to deliberate on a set of recommendations of a standard daily allowance for each type of nutrient. The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civilians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances for "energy and eight nutrients", and submitted them to experts for review (Nestle, 35). The final set of guidelines, called RDAs for Recommended Dietary Allowances, were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a "margin of safety." Because of food rationing during the war, the food guides created by government agencies to direct citizens' nutritional intake also took food availability into account.
The Food and Nutrition Board subsequently revised the RDAs every five to ten years. In the early 1950s, United States Department of Agriculture nutritionists made a new set of guidelines that also included the number of servings of each food group in order to make it easier for people to receive their RDAs of each nutrient.
[edit] Current recommendations
The current Dietary Reference Intake recommendation is composed of[2]:
- Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), expected to satisfy the needs of 50% of the people in that age group based on a review of the scientific literature.
- Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient by the Food and Nutrition Board to meet the requirements of 97.5% of healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group. It is calculated based on the EAR and is usually approximately 20% higher than the EAR (See "Calculating the RDA", below).
- Adequate Intake (AI), where no RDA has been established, but the amount established is somewhat less firmly believed to be adequate for everyone in the demographic group.
- Tolerable upper intake levels (UL), to caution against excessive intake of nutrients (like vitamin A) that can be harmful in large amounts. This is the highest level of daily consumption that current data have shown to cause no side effects in humans when used indefinitely without medical supervision.
The RDA is used to determine the Recommended Daily Value (RDV) which is printed on food labels in the U.S. and Canada.
[edit] Vitamins and minerals
EARs, RDA/AIs and ULs for an average healthy 25-year old male are shown below. EARs shown as "NE" have not yet been established or not yet evaluated. ULs shown as "ND" could not be determined, and it is recommended that intake from these nutrients be from food only, to prevent adverse effects. Amounts and "ND" status for other age and gender groups, pregnant women, lactating women, and breastfeeding infants may be much different.[3]
Nutrient | EAR | RDA/AI | UL | Unit | Top Sources in Common Measures, USDA[4] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vitamin A | 625 | 900 | 3000 | µg | turkey, carrot juice, pumpkin |
Vitamin C | 75 | 90 | 2000 | mg | orange juice, grapefruit juice, peaches, kiwifruit, bell peppers |
Vitamin D[5][6] | 10 | 15 | 100 | µg | fortified cereals, sockeye salmon, swordfish, rainbow trout (also fortified foods and beverages) |
Vitamin K | NE | 120 | ND | µg | kale, collards, spinach |
Vitamin B6 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 100 | mg | fortified cereals, chickpeas, sockeye salmon |
α-tocopherol (Vitamin E) | 12 | 15 | 1000 | mg | fortified cereals, tomato paste, sunflower seeds |
Biotin (B7) | NE | 30 | ND | µg | whole grains, almonds, peanuts, beef liver, egg, salmon[7] |
Calcium[5][6] | 800 | 1000 | 2500 | mg | fortified cereals, collards, almonds, condensed cow's milk, cheese, figs, orange juice |
Chloride | NE | 2300 | 3600 | mg | table salt |
Chromium | NE | 35 | ND | µg | broccoli, turkey ham, grape juice[8] |
Choline | NE | 550 | 3500 | mg | broccoli, beef liver, condensed milk, peanuts |
Copper | 700 | 900 | 10000 | µg | sunflower seeds, oysters, lobster |
Cyanocobalamin (B12) | 2.0 | 2.4 | ND | µg | fortified cereals, turkey, clams |
Fluoride | NE | 4 | 10 | mg | public drinking water |
Folate (B9) | 320 | 400 | 1000 | µg | leafy greens, enriched white rice, fortified cereals, enriched cornmeal |
Iodine | 95 | 150 | 1100 | µg | iodized salt |
Iron | 6 | 8 | 45 | mg | fortified cereals, turkey, walnuts, seeds |
Magnesium | 330 | 400 | 350[9] | mg | buckwheat flour, trail mix, bulgur, bananas |
Manganese | NE | 2.3 | 11 | mg | oat bran, whole grain wheat flour, bulgur |
Molybdenum | 34 | 45 | 2000 | µg | legumes, grain products, nuts and seeds[10] |
Niacin (B3) | 12 | 16 | 35 | mg | fortified cereals, yellowfin tuna, sockeye salmon |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | NE | 5 | ND | mg | fortified cereals, beef liver, shiitake mushrooms |
Phosphorus | 580 | 700 | 4000 | mg | cornmeal, condensed milk, wheat flour |
Potassium | NE | 4700 | ND | mg | potatoes, bananas, tomato paste, orange juice, beet greens |
Riboflavin (B2) | 1.1 | 1.3 | ND | mg | almonds, sesame seeds, spaghetti, beef liver, turkey |
Selenium | 45 | 55 | 400 | µg | Brazil nuts, rockfish, yellowfin tuna |
Sodium | NE | 1500 | 2300 | mg | onion soup mix, miso, table salt |
Thiamin (B1) | 1.0 | 1.2 | ND | mg | fortified cereals, enriched wheat flour, breadcrumbs |
Zinc | 9.4 | 11 | 40 | mg | nuts, oysters, fortified cereals, baked beans |
EAR: Estimated Average Requirements; RDA: Recommended Dietary Allowances; AI: Adequate Intake; UL: Tolerable upper intake levels.
It is also recommended that the following substances not be added to food or dietary supplements. Research has been conducted into adverse effects, but was not conclusive in many cases:
Substance | RDA/AI | UL | units per day |
---|---|---|---|
Arsenic | - | ND | - |
Silicon | - | ND | - |
Vanadium | - | 1.8 | mg |
[edit] Macronutrients
RDA/AI is shown below for males and females aged 40–50 years.[3]
Substance | Amount (males) | Amount (females) | Top Sources in Common Measures[4] |
---|---|---|---|
Waterb | 3.7 L/day | 2.7 L/day | water, iceberg lettuce |
Carbohydrates | 130 g/day | 130 g/day | condensed milk, pie crust, barley |
Proteinc | 56 g/day | 46 g/day | duck, chicken, turkey, beef |
Fiber | 38 g/day | 25 g/day | barley, bulgur, legumes |
Fat | 20–35% of calories | pie crust, white chocolate, trail mix | |
Linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) | 17 g/day | 12 g/day | |
alpha-Linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) | 1.6 g/day | 1.1 g/day | |
Cholesterol | As low as possible | chicken giblets, turkey giblets, beef liver | |
Trans fatty acids | As low as possible | ||
Saturated fatty acids | As low as possible | white chocolate, coconut meat, ricotta cheese | |
Added sugar | No more than 25% of calories | condensed milk, deglet noor dates, white chocolate |
- b Includes water from food, beverages, and drinking water.
- c Based on 0.8 g/kg of body weight
[edit] Calculating the RDA
The equations used to calculate the RDA are as follows:
"If the standard deviation (SD) of the EAR is available and the requirement for the nutrient is symmetrically distributed, the RDA is set at two SDs above the EAR:
RDA = EAR + 2 SD(EAR).
If data about variability in requirements are insufficient to calculate an SD, a coefficient of variation (CV) for the EAR of 10 percent is assumed, unless available data indicate a greater variation in requirements. If 10 percent is assumed to be the CV, then twice that amount when added to the EAR is defined as equal to the RDA. The resulting equation for the RDA is then
RDA = 1.2 × EAR.
This level of intake statistically represents 97.5 percent of the requirements of the population."[1]
[edit] Recent developments
In September 2007, the Institute of Medicine held a workshop entitled “The Development of DRIs 1994–2004: Lessons Learned and New Challenges.”[11] At that meeting, several speakers stated that the current Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI’s) were largely based upon the very lowest rank in the quality of evidence pyramid, that is, opinion, rather than the highest level – randomized controlled clinical trials. Speakers called for a higher standard of evidence to be utilized when making dietary recommendations.
[edit] See also
- Healthy diet
- Acceptable daily intake - upper limit on intake (United Kingdom)
- Dietary Reference Values - recommended dietary requirements (United Kingdom)
- Vitamin poisoning
- Canada's Food Guide
- Food guide pyramid
- Dietary mineral
- Essential amino acid
- Essential fatty acid
- Essential nutrient
[edit] References
- ^ Contributions of Women Scientists in the U.S. to the Development of Recommended Dietary Allowances - Harper 133 (11): 3698 - Journal of Nutrition
- ^ http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/cons_info-guide_cons-eng.php
- ^ a b Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies, 2004, http://www.iom.edu/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRI_Summary_Listing.pdf, retrieved 2009-06-09
- ^ a b USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, SR23, 2010
- ^ a b Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies, November 30, 2010
- ^ a b Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D, IOM, November 30, 2010: "The IOM finds that the evidence supports a role for vitamin D and calcium in bone health but not in other health conditions. Further, emerging evidence indicates that too much of these nutrients may be harmful, challenging the concept that “more is better.”"
- ^ Biotin, Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University
- ^ Chromium, Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University
- ^ Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, Vitamins: The ULs for magnesium represent intake from a pharmacological agent only and do not include intake from food and water., Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies, 1997
- ^ Molybdenum, Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University
- ^ The Development of DRIs 1994–2004: Lessons Learned and New Challenges. Workshop Summary, November 30, 2007
[edit] Further reading
- Nestle, Marion. Food Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 979-0520224659.
[edit] External links
- US Government Food and Nutrition Information Center list of Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA, the deprecated nutritional recommendations)
- USDA RDA chart (PDF file)
- USDA Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
- Article comparing recommended amounts of vitamins and minerals in different countries from the European Union (PDF file)
- Differences in RDA set by medical authorities in the UK, the European Union and the USA.